Japanese Imperialism 1895-1910
In the year 1850, Japan was an economically backward country. They had isolated themselves from the rest of the world for the past two hundred years. There was very little economic development, industrialization, and modernization. Along with this, Japan’s inefficient feudal based society made it an easy target for imperialist Western countries such as Britain and the U.S. to exploit. Though these western countries never attempted to fully colonize Japan, they took a more semi-colonial approach. For example, Captain Perry, a U.S Navy captain, made Japan open its ports to foreign trade and residence under unfair conditions through gunboat diplomacy. On top of this, country's such as France, the Dutch, Britain, and even the U.S were very active in the Asia pacific region during the late 19th and early 20th century. These countries had been establishing colonies in the regions for many years. Japan viewed western imperialism in Asia as a direct threat to their sovereignty. It was these actions by Western nations that set the groundwork for Japanese Imperialism. The actions of Western nations in Japan sparked a significant reaction, the Meiji restoration. This movement saw a group of leaders such as Ito Hirobumi and Matsukata Masayoshi rise to power. These leaders were determined to strengthen Japan’s role and prestige in the world within a generation. Their accomplishments included a modern Army and Navy, the beginnings of industrialization, and the creation of an elaborate state bureaucracy centered around the emperor. Only a few decades after Japan’s reopening to the world, the country’s leaders embarked on a policy of aggressive territorial expansion. How did Japan go from a self-isolating country to an imperialist world superpower within a matter of decades? Though many argue that Japanese imperialism stemmed from the need for raw materials, foreign markets, and economic reasons the answer is much more complicated. The motivation behind Japanese imperialism, in the late nineteenth and early 20th century, was not economic as many believe, but rather based in Japanese nationalism, specifically national defense, emulation of western countries, and personal characteristics of the Japanese people centered around the belief they were a superior people.
When discussing what led Japan to become an imperialist nation, we must first define what leads any nation to become imperialist. There are four main theories on what leads a country to become imperialistic. J.A Hobson an English economcist, who lived in the late 19th and early to mid 20th century, “identified the taproot of imperialism to be surplus capital in the home country in search of profitable investments in foreign markets” (Gordon, 1). In other words, the profits earned by a few wealthy capitalists lead to chronic over-saving in the home country. This capital is in search of return or yield which cannot be found in the domestic market. The search for yield pushes that capital into newer foreign markets, thus leading to imperialism. However, imperialism is not practical for a government’s national business policy, as the vast military and administrative expenses are too costly. Nonetheless, well organized business interests that stand to gain from imperialism will lobby the government to put the cost onto the general public through borrowing and taxes.
The cornerstone of Hobson’s theory is that the existence of excess capital in a home country leads to profit seeking overseas. However, during the period from 1894 to 1910 Japan forcefully acquired three territories overseas: Taiwan in 1895 as a result of the Sino Japanese war, Korea in 1905 as a result of the Russo Japanese War and parts of Manchuria in 1905. During this period Japan had essentially no excess capital. They relied mainly on loans from Britain and the United States to finance their rapid industrial expansion and their imperialist wars with Russia and China. Foreign holding of government debt accounted for 60% of Japan's 2.6-billion-yen national debt (Gordon, 2). On top of this, imports and exports between Japan and its colonies accounted for a very small amount of total economic activity during this period. Thus, Hobson’s theory does not hold water when looked at in the context of Japan. Given that there was no excess capital in Japan at the time and minimal trade between the homeland and colonies, it cannot be argued that Japan engaged in imperialist expansion due to economic reasons.
The second theory for why nations engage in imperialism comes from Lenin. Lenin believed that capitalists wanted to employ surplus capital abroad to achieve higher profits than they could in the domestic market. He also believed that imperialism required the existence of large-scale firms or monopolies, the merging of industrial companies with banks, industrialization, and the need for raw materials. There were privately owned conglomerates in Japan during this period, known as the Zaibatsu, and often these conglomerates did own banks. However, their share of loans in the Japanese market was only 17% in 1910 (Gordon, 2). This figure shows no support for Lenin’s theory that finance capital monopolies are an essential part of imperialism. Though Japan was in the process of industrializing it was still by all metrics considered to be a developing country. As Bill Gordan states in Explanations of Japan’s
Imperialistic Expansion, 1894-1910 “Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries accounted for 33% of economic output and 67% of employment in 1910. Manufacturing and construction contributed only 23% to economic output, and over half of manufacturing production came from cottage industries employing less than five people. Manufacturing consisted mainly of food products and textiles at 34% each, whereas heavy industry made up only 21%” (Gordon, 3). Finally, Lenin believed that imperialism occurs when the home country needs raw materials. However, as previously stated there was very little trade and economic activity between Japan and her colonies during the time period. Thus, Lenin’s theory of imperialism cannot be applied to Japan in its early imperialist years.
Another theory proposed for Japanese expansion is the existence of older social structures within a capitalist system. Japan had a feudalistic social structure with a warrior class until the fall of the Shogunate in 1868. Many leaders in this social structure, such as the former military aristocracy, took leadership positions in the new government. These leaders quickly argued for military action and imperialism, most notably Saigo Takamori’s call for the conquest of Korea in the 1870s, however, this did not immediately occur (Lecture, Smith). This theory holds some water as it is plausible that older societal structures can harness and capture a capitalist system and turn it into one of imperialism. The reason for this is that capitalists have no incentives for imperialism while older societal structures such as a warrior class have a nationalistic desire for imperialism. Japan's colonies did not provide profits for the country as a whole; thus, capitalism could not be a reason for imperialism. As stated in The Economic Development of Japan: Growth and Structural Change:
“But it is certain that colonial enterprise occupied a subordinate place in Japanese economic development during the first three decades of the twentieth century. And it is likely that whatever contributions were made to Japan's national income and industrial development by political control over these areas were more than offset, even at the time, by the costs of the military outlays, developmental subsidies, and tariff preferences through which she acquired and developed her empire” (Lockwood, 52).
This quote reveals that economics was not a reason for Japanese imperialism and was a result of nationalistic pride of older societal structures in Japan. What this theory fails to explain is how Japan quickly became an aggressive conqueror of foreign nations after two centuries of peace and self-imposed isolation to the outside world.
The failure of these three theories to explain the rapid rise in Japanese imperialism leaves us with the question, what was the major reason for Japanese imperialism? The answer to this question is simple; nationalism. This theory best explains Japan’s rapid ascent in foreign expansion and imperialism. There are a few main reasons that best provide evidence for nationalism as the primary motivating force for Japanese imperialism in the late 19th and early 20th century. Japan held deep concerns for its national security, it wanted to emulate Western imperialist countries to become a major player on the world stage, and finally widely held beliefs, ideals and personal characteristics of the Japanese people that they were a divine a superior people. All three of these factors were strongly based on the nationalistic ideology that was extremely prevalent in this time period.
First, Japan was concerned about growing Western imperialism and influence in the Asia Pacific region. They felt that they need to expand their borders not only to protect themselves, but also, fellow Asian peoples from western colonialist nations. This desire of Japan to protect other Asian nations came from how they were treated by western countries. The United States forcibly opened Japan to the outside world in 1853. Japan was then pressured by Western nations to sign unequal treaties and trade deals. The leaders of the Meiji government, that was formulated in the year 1868 after the fall of the Tokugawa Shogunate, felt that national defense and security was of the utmost importance. They believed that a strong national defense and military was crucial to preventing Japanese subjugation to Imperial Western powers, as well as a matter of nationalistic pride. In order to become an economic superpower in the new modern world, Japan first needed to become a military superpower to protect its economic interests. As stated by Gordon “The nationalistic policy of fukoku kyōhei (rich country, strong military) emphasized Japan's goals to develop the country economically to catch up with the Western powers and to increase its military strength to ensure its existence as an independent country” (Gordon, 5). The leaders of the Meiji government saw the existence of a strong imperialistic military as crucial to Japan's self-defense and its ability to rise as an economic superpower.
One of these leaders in Japanese society was the thinker and author Tokutomi Soho. He was responsible for publishing and editing the Meiji period’s most significant journal, Kokumin no tomo (The Nation’s Friends). Tokutomi was responsible for introducing a young Japanese population to Western political and economic ideas, specifically those of the likes of John Stuart Mill. In general, he and other Meiji supporters at the time such as Fukuzawa Yukichi, saw the Meiji reformation as a break with the past and a liberating event for Japan. Even though he espoused liberal ideas he also was a nationalist. To him the preservation of national sovereignty was his ultimate goal. He felt that pushing Japan toward modernization would allow it to protect itself from outside threats. Though he never advocated for military imperialism he, along with a growing number of Japanese citizens, understood the dangers that western imperialism posed to Japan. Tokutomi stated the following in one of his papers during the Meiji period:
The present-day world is one in which civilized people tyrannically destroy primitive people .... The European countries stand at the very pinnacle of violence and base themselves on the doctrine of force .... India, alas, has been destroyed, Annam has been destroyed, Burma will be next. The remaining countries will be independent in name only .... What is the outlook for Persia? For China? Korea? And even Japan? The future will be extremely critical. This, I feel, is unbearable. (DeBary, 545)
This attitude and belief was very common in Japan in the late 19th century. The idea that Japan was under threat from imperial Western nations was widespread. Some argue that the Japanese people were paranoid. However, based on Western actions around the region their concerns over threats to their national security were reasonable. These concerns led to a growing rise in nationalism and the need for Japan to engage in imperialism for self-defense reasons. Tokutomi reveals that Japanese imperialism in the late 19th and early 20th century was centered not around economic reasons, but rather nationalistic ambitions under the guise of national security.
Since the beginning of the Meiji era, Japan held deep imperialist ambitions over Korea. Though many arguments can be made for the reasons why Japan invaded Korea, the most convincing one was the Japanese leaders viewed it as a matter of self-defense. In fact, the primary motivation behind many of the imperialistic wars fought during the early 1900s can be traced back to national defense and security. As Gordan states in his paper “Japan fought the later wars against China and Russia in 1894-5 and 1904-5, respectively, to ensure that Korea would not be used by another imperialist power to threaten Japan's security” (Gordon, 6). Japan knew the dangers of being subjugated to Western dominance. They experienced this firsthand in the mid 19th century. Thus, they would take many imperialistic actions in the name of national defense and nationalism to ensure this would never occur again. As we can see by Gordon’s quote the threat of Western dominance was the primary driver of two wars. Thus, leading to the view, in the eyes of many Japanese citizens and leaders that Japan was already at war with the west. One of the thinkers and generals who espoused these ideas during the late 19th century was the immensely powerful and influential general in the Japanese imperial army, Ishihara Kanji. He was a prominent right winger in the military and strongly believed in the imperialist ambitions of Japan. With respect to the matters of Japanese imperialism in Korea as well as Manchuria, Kanji is quoted as saying:
The Manchuria-Mongolia region is of enormous strategic importance with respect to the destiny and development of our country. If the Manchuria-Mongolia region is brought under our influence, then our control over Korea will be stabilized. If our country shows firm determination by resolving the Manchuria Mongolia problem through force, it can assume a position of leadership toward Cina; it can promote China's unity and stability; and it can guarantee peace in the East” (DeBary, 619).
Kanji in this quote and many of his other writings is clear in his belief that Japan should impose its will on other Asian countries to ensure peace in the “East.” He justified Japanese imperialism through nationalism, as Japan was a superior nation, as a matter of self-defense from Western imperialism, and finally through the idea that Japan was already at war with the West and a unified Asia, with Japan at the head, was needed to win.
This idea of a battle between the East, Japan, and the West, the United States, was a major cause of the growing nationalism we see in Japan during this time period. There was the belief many in Japan held at the time that whoever would win the East vs West battle would decide who would control the world. Would it be the great industrial powers of Europe emerging from World War I or would it be the younger less developed Asian countries with Japan at the center? Kanji, here reveals his views on the matter “A world dominated by the five superpowers that emerged from the Great War in Europe will eventually be united into one system. A struggle for supremacy between the United States, as the representative of the West, and Japan, as the Champion of the East, will decide who will control it...” (DeBary, 619). Here Kanji emphaszizes the extent to which Japanese imperialism was fueled by, nationalism, and the necessity of the Japanese to dominate East Asian as a matter of self-defense. The actions Japan would take during this time period, in the name of national security, would closely replicate that of a Western nation during the time period.
Another driving force for Japanese nationalism fueled expansion and imperialism during this era was its desire to emulate the behaviors of other Western nations. As early as 1871 government officials, as part of the Iwakura mission, travelled to the United States and Europe in order to observe Western societies directly. These government officials were specifically interested in studying Western legal and political institutions. Their goal was to create a modern nation built on the bedrock of Western administrative institutions. As Japan emerged from its peaceful self-isolation it saw itself in the midst of a competitive imperialistic global environment, specifically in the Asia pacific region. Japan had no choice but to copy the behavior it saw occurring around them “the Meiji rulers accepted a geopolitical logic that led inexorably toward either empire or subordination, with no middle ground possible. They saw the nonwestern world being carved up into colonial possessions by the strong states of the West. They decided that Japan had no choice but to secure its independence by emulating the imperialists” (Gordon, 121). Japan realized it had to eat or be eaten, there was no other option. Japan took the Western imperialist threat to heart and rose in power and prestige at a rate rarely seen in human history.
Many in the West believed that Japan would never become a truly global imperial power. It had taken European countries centuries to achieve the level of imperial prestige they had. However, after several successful imperialist actions by Japan in Korea and China, Western minds began to change. After, Japan's victory in the First Sino Japanese war, those in the west were shocked and began to view Japan with more prestige and as the model of a non-western imperialist nation. One example of the astonishment of the West was in a news article written in 1895 in England “Japan has within 40 years gone through the various administrative phases that occupied England about 800 years and Rome about 600, and I am loath to say that anything is impossible with her” (Gordon, 116). The speed at which Japan went from a self-isolated and economically undeveloped nation with a weak military, to an Imperial superpower was astonishing. The reason for this was again based in Japanese nationalism, their desire to emulate western powers, and their belief they were a chosen people. Japan, due to its nationalistic beliefs, felt that they could copy the western countries' model for imperialism, and in fact do it better.
The Japanese people have a long history of taking new ideas and successfully assimilating them well into Japanese culture and society. The same goes for Japan with imperialism. As stated by G.C. Allen in A Short Economic History of Modern Japan “Throughout their history they have shown a gift for rapidly assimilating new ideas and practices, a boldness in executing large projects and, above all, a trained and frequently exercised capacity for organization” (Allen, 15). These characteristics of the Japanese people supported their imperialistic military expansion in the early 20th century and eventually their rapid economic expansion in the mid to the late 20th century. It also fueled their nationalistic attitude of the Japanese people and nation as fundamentally superior to other nations. This theory of the Japanese people as the center of the Asian world sprung out of the intellectual wing of Japanese society. In A Modern History of Japan Andrew Gordon states “indigenous intellectual traditions developed by scholars of National Learning or those of the Mito domain rejected both Sino-centric and Western models of international relations. They claimed a special place for Japan as a divine realm that "constitutes the head and shoulders of the world and controls all nations” (Gordon, 121). Japan believed that not China or the West should dominate the international world order, but rather Japan itself. Their belief that they were a superior people, with their destiny tied to the god like emperor, was a cause of much of the nationalism felt by the Japanese people and thus the imperialism that followed from that.
It is very difficult to determine what the exact cause of Japanese imperialism was during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. There are many theories based on social and economic issues that attempt to explain why countries engage in imperialism. However, none of them explain the fascinating and complicated rise in Japanese imperialism we see in this era. The most simple and compelling theory is nationalism. This nationalism was fueled by Japan’s desire to be safe and independent from Western imperialist nations active in the Asia Pacific region. The Japanese leaders believed if they could achieve the status and advantages that came from being an imperialist nation, they would in affect be more protected. On top of this the Japanese people have a history of taking outside ideas, traditions, and practices and assimilating them into their culture. The same goes for what the Japanese did with imperialism. They wanted to emulate the Western nations to increase their prestige in the increasingly competitive and globalized modern era. Finally, the Japanese people had long believed that not the West nor China was the center of the world. Rather, they believed in a world model with Japan at the center, as the leader of the Asian world. When we view Japan with a nationalistic lense in this era, the imperialism they engaged in does not appear surprising at all, in fact it emerges as the driving force of Japanese imperialism.
Annotated Bibliography:
Theodore, De Bary Wm. Sources of East Asian Tradition. The Modern Period ed., vol. 2, Columbia University Press, 2008. Ishihara, Kanji. “A Plan to Occupy Korea.” (618-620). Tokutomi, Soho. “A Japanese Nationalists View of the West and Asia.” (543-548)
The author of Sources of East Asian Tradition Theodore, De Bary was an American Sinologist and scholar of East Asian philosophy who was a professor and administrator at Columbia University for nearly 70 years. He is a very trustworthy source to use, and, in his book, a great deal is talked about Japanese nationalism. Given that this is the center of my thesis on why Japan became an imperialist nation, the bits on nationalism in this source helped me in providing evidence for my thesis. Most importantly the compilation of primary sources from the time period in which I was studying was crucial in providing evidence for the claims I was making. The writings of Ishihara Kanji and Tokutomi Soho are perfect examples of men with viewpoints from the time providing evidence for the claims I was making. Specifically, their writings allowed me to back up my claims on rising nationalism as a major reason for Japanese imperialism in Korea and Manchuria.
Gordon, Bill. “Explanations of Japan’s Imperialistic Expansion, 1894-1910.” Explanations of Japan’s Imperialistic Expansion, 1894-1910, Dec. 2003
This paper by Bill Gordon discusses in depth the main causes and theories behind the imperialist actions of Japan in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The author Bill Gordon received an MA in Advanced Japanese Studies from the School of East Asian Studies at the University of Sheffield in the U.K., and he received an MA in Liberal Studies degree from Wesleyan University For a paper on what led Japan to take the imperialist actions they did, no paper is better suited in understanding this phenomenon. The paper perfectly lines up with my thesis on how Japan’s imperialism during this time period was not prompted as much by economics but more so pure nationalism.
Gordon, Andrew. A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa Times to the Present. Oxford University Press, 2020.
Andrew Gordon is an American Japanologist who is a scholar of modern Japanese history. He is a professor at Harvard University and is widely regarded as one of the greatest expert historians in the field of modern Japanese history. He is the author of the book A Modern History of Japan. This book is well suited in providing textual evidence and facts on the time period that was used to back up my thesis. In this book he provides evidence on how the Japanese people viewed themselves as the center of the Asian world. This point is crucial to how nationalism was fueled by this ideology and in turn led to imperialism. When looking at all the other sources assigned throughout the semester the reading from this book stuck out to me. The evidence used in Gordon’s book perfectly aligned with my thesis and overall theme of my essay.
Allen, G.C. 1981. A Short Economic History of Modern Japan. Fourth edition. New York: St. Martin's Press.
A Short Economic History of Modern Japan was written by G.C. Allen in 1981. Discussing the process of economic development in Japan, this book covers the period from when Japan first entered upon her career of Westernization to the beginning of the war with China in 1937. Although to be clear I only use quotes from the era relevant to my essay, around 1895- 1910. The reason that I use this source is to emphasize the personal characteristics of the Japanese people. More specifically how these characteristics fueled nationalism, imperialism, military, and economic success in Japan. I found this source extremely helpful and useful in isolating a crucial part of my thesis, the special nature of the personal characteristics of the Japanese people.
Smith, Jomo. “Japan’s Meiji Restoration” Grinnell College, Week 2 January 30th- February 1st , 2023.
